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The Persian conquerors were conquered by Alexander the Great, who stormed out of Macedonia, crossed the Hellespor (Dardanelles) in 334 BC, and within a few years had conquered the entire Middle East from Greece to India. Alexander, it is said, was frustrated in untying the Gordian knot at Gordium (Yassi Höyük so he cut it with his sword. It seems he did the right thing, as the domination of Asia which he was supposed to gain by untying the knot - came to be his in record time. His sword-blow proved that he was an impetuous young man. But then, if you’re going to conquer the known world in time to die at the age of 33, you’ve got to make a few shortcuts. Alexander’s effects on Anatolia were profound. He was the first of many rulers who would attempt to meld western and eastern cultures (the Byzantines and the Ottomans followed suit). Upon his death in 323 BC, in Babylon, his empire was divided up among his generals in a flurry of civil wars. Lysimachus claimed western and central Anatolia after winning the battle of Ipsus (301 BC), and he set his mark on the Ionian cities. Many Hellenistic buildings went up by his orders. Ancient Smyrna was abandoned, and a brand-new city was built several kilometres away, where the modern city of Izmir stands. But the civil wars continued, and Lysimachus was slain by Seleucus (King of Seleucid lands, 305- 280 BC) , another of Alexander’s generals, at the Battle of Corupedium (281 BC). Though Seleucus was in turn slain by Ptolemy Ceraunus, the kingdom of the Seleucids was to rule a great part of the Middle East for the next century, based in Antioch (Antakya). Meanwhile, the next crowd of invaders, Celts or Gauls this time, was storming through Macedonia on its way to Anatolia (279 BC) to establish the Kingdom of Galatia. The Galatians made Ancyra (Ankara) their capital and subjected the Aegean cities to their rule. The foundations of parts of the citadel in Ankara date from Galatian times. While the Galatians ruled western Anatolia, Mithridates I had become king of Pontus, a state based on Trebizond (Trabzon) on the eastern Black Sea coast. At its height, the Pontic kingdom extended all the way to Cappadocia in central Anatolia. Still other small kingdoms flourished at this time, between 300 and 200 BC. A leader named Prusias founded the Kingdom of Bithynia, and gave his name to the chief city: Prusa (Bursa). Nicaea (Iznik) was also of great importance. And in south eastern Anatolia, an Armenian kingdom grew up, centred on the town of Van. The Armenians, a Phrygian tribe, settled around Lake Van after the decline of Urartian power. A fellow named Ardvates (ruled 317-284 BC), a Persian satrap (vice-regent) under the Seleucids, broke away from the Seleucid kingdom to found the short-lived Kingdom of Armenia. The Seleucids later regained control, but lost it again as Armenia was split into two kingdoms, Greater and Lesser Armenia. Reunited in 94 BC under Tigranes I, the Kingdom of Armenia became very powerful for a short period (83-69 BC). Armenia finally fell to the Roman legions not long afterwards. But the most impressive and powerful of Anatolia’s many kingdoms at this time was Pergamum. Gaining tremendous power around 250 BC, the Pergamene king picked the right side to be on, siding with Rome early in the game. With Roman help, Pergamum threw off Seleucid rule and went on to challenge both King Prusias of Bithynia (186 BC) and King Pharnaces I of Pontus (183 BC). The kings of Pergamum were great warriors, governors, and also mad patrons of the arts, assembling an enormous library which rivalled that of Alexandria. The Asciepium, ormedical centre, atPergamum was flourishing at this time, and continued to flourish for centuries, under Rome. Greatest of Pergamene kings was Eumenes II (197-159 BC), who ruled an enormous empire stretching from the Dardanelles to the Taurus mountains near Syria. He was responsible for building much of what’s left on Pergamum’s acropolis, including the grand library. |